![]() ![]() "Notes on reproduction in the estuarine stonefish Synanceia horrida" (PDF). "Verrucotoxin, a stonefish venom, modulates calcium channel activity in guinea-pig ventricular myocytes". South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal. "Toxic fish spine injury: lessons from 11 years experience" (PDF). "Evidence for the cccurrence of the Indo-Pacific stonefish, Synanceia verrucosa (Actinopterygii: Scorpaeniformes: Synanceiidae), in the Mediterranean Sea". "Reef Stonefish, Synanceia verrucosasasa (Bloch & Schneider, 1801)". The ETYFish Project Fish Name Etymology Database. ![]() "Order Perciformes (Part 10): Suborder Scorpaenoidei: Families Apistidae, Tetrarogidae, Synanceiidae, Aploacrinidae, Perryenidae, Eschmeyeridae, Pataceidae, Gnathanacanthidae, Congiopodidae and Zanclorhynchidae". Fricke, Ron & van der Laan, Richard (eds.). "The Stonefish – The Deadliest Fish in The World". ^ a b c d Froese, Rainer Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2022).Sexual dimorphism is apparent in reef stonefish, with females being larger than males. The mating system of the reef stonefish is promiscuity, as the female will not discriminate between which males can lay their sperm on the egg layer. Stonefish eggs are fairly large, with young fish hatching well developed. A male will then swim by and release sperm onto the layer of eggs, fertilizing them. ![]() When a female stonefish has reached sexual maturity, she will lay her unfertilized eggs on the floor of the reef. The reef stonefish lives most of its life as a solitary animal, and during mating season only aggregates with the opposite sex for a short time. The venom consists of a mixture of proteins, including the hemolytic stonustoxin, the proteinaceous verrucotoxin, and the cardiotoxic cardioleputin. Surviving victims may have nerve damage, which can lead to local muscle atrophy. The immobilization of venom at penetration site using a tourniquet or firm constrictive bandaging is no longer recommended. First aid includes immersion of the affected limb in hot water this is thought to help denature the proteins in the venom. Medical treatment includes the antivenom. A large dose can be fatal to humans, generally young children, the elderly, and those with weakened immune systems. Įffects of the venom include severe pain, shock, paralysis, and tissue death. The protein makeup differs between the three species of stonefish, but in reef stonefish the fatal protein is the verrucotoxin protein. Stonefish venom can be fatal at a dose of only 18mg, which the fish is capable of releasing with only six of its thirteen spines. The spines are sharp and stiff and have been known to pierce boot soles. Its dorsal area is lined with 13 spines, each of which has two venom sacs. The reef stonefish is the most venomous fish in the world. It may settle on and around rocks and plants, or rest on the seabed. The first documented individual was an adult that was captured in 2010 near Yavne, Israel. verrucosa occurs in the far eastern Mediterranean Sea, either through release of aquarium specimens or Lessepsian migration via the Suez Canal. It is the most widespread species in the stonefish family, and is known from shallow tropical marine waters in the western Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, ranging from the Red Sea and coastal East Africa to French Polynesia, southern Japan and surrounding Taiwan. This stonefish lives primarily above the Tropic of Capricorn. This species reaches a maximum recorded total length of 40 cm (16 in) but 27 cm (11 in) is more typical. The small upwardly directed eyes have a deep pit behind them with a smaller pit underneath them. The skin has no scales but there are numerous warts. The dorsal spines are of equal length with a thicker sheath of skin containing the venom glands at their base. The dorsal fin contains between 12 and 14 spines and 5 and 7 soft rays while the anal fin has 3 spines and 5 or 6 soft rays. Synanceia verrucosa are usually brown or grey, and may have areas of yellow, orange, or red. The specific name verrucosa means “covered with verrucas or warts”, an allusion to the warty growths all over its body. Bloch and Schneider described a new genus, Synanceia, for this species but in 1856 Eugène Anselme Sébastien Léon Desmarest designated Scorpaena horrida, which had been described by Carl Linnaeus in 1766, as the type species of Synanceia. Synanceia verrucosa was first formally described in 1801 by the German naturalists Marcus Elieser Bloch and Johann Gottlob Theaenus Schneider with the type locality given as India. ![]()
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